OSMOSIS AND THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA

The figure above shows the guard cells with a stoma in between them. The guard cells are actually an example of specialized cells or modified cells. Modified in such a way that they can perform their function well. Their function is to allow the stoma to open or to close.

In what way are they specialized?
They are specialized in such a way that their cell wall around the stoma is much thicker. This allows the cells to bend on one side when they become turgid. Hence causing the stoma to open.

Opening:
Stoma opens when the guard cells are turgid. They become turgid when the water potential of the cells adjacent to the guard cells are higher than that in the cell sap of the guard cells. This result in water molecules from the adjacent cells to move into the guard cells by osmosis. When water molecules enter, the vacuoles increase in size causing osmotic pressure to build up and this in turn causes the guard cells to become turgid. When the guard cells become turgid, they bend inwards causing the stoma to open. The opening of the stoma is an advantage because it allows gaseous exchange to take place.

Closing:
When the water potential of the adjacent cells is lower than that in the cell sap of the guard cells, water molecules move out of the guard cells into the adjacent cells by osmosis. When this happens, the guard cells become plasmolysed which in turn causes the stoma to close.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ACTIVE SITES OF ENZYMES

Have a look at the following figure:


A particular enzyme molecule has an active site which is usually complimentary to the shape of the substrate on which it acts on. Hence enzyme's specificity. Meaning, a particular enzyme can only act on a particular substrate but not with other substrates.

At temperature higher than the optimum temperature, the shape of the active site of an enzyme starts to become distorted making it difficult for the substrate molecule to fit in into it. We say that after the optimum temperature, the enzyme starts to denature. Because of this chances for the enzyme molecules and the substrate molecules to collide to form enzyme-substrate complexes are now becoming lower and lower despite the availability of more kinetic energy at higher temperature. This in turn, causes less products to be formed. Hence the rate of reaction becomes lower and lower at temperatures higher than the optimum temperature.

At extremely high temperature the active site of an enzyme is said to be totally DENATURED. This means that the active site is actually totally distorted. As a result, substrate molecule finds it difficult to fit in into the active site. No enzyme-substrate complexes formed. Meaning, no products formed. This in turn means no reaction occurs. Hence the rate of reaction is actually NIL at this temperature.

Is this REVERSIBLE?
Absolutely NOT reversible. Once an enzyme is denatured, it is actually damaged and cannot be used again even if one tries to lower back the temperature to the optimum temperature.

How about at extremely low temperature?
Enzyme is not DENATURED at a very low temperature. It is simply INACTIVATED. This means there is no kinetic energy available at this temperature to activate the enzyme. Once the temperature is increased, kinetic energy will start to become available and the enzyme and substrate molecules will start to collide with each other to form enzyme-substrate complexes which will eventually break/combine to form products. [Break if the reaction is a CATABOLIC reaction (as shown in the figure above)and Combine if the reaction is an ANABOLIC reaction]

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